PART OF SPEECH

Part Of Speech

In every language, almost all of the lexical items fall naturally into a small number of classes, and the words in each class behave grammatically in much the same way. Linguists often call these classes word classes or lexical categories, but the traditional term is parts of speech.

The ancient Greek grammarians recognized eight parts of speech for their language. The Roman grammarians who followed them recognized a slightly different list of eight classes for their own language, Latin. Over the centuries, European grammarians proposed several different lists for English and other languages, though curiously the total number of classes recognized was eight in almost every proposal.

By the early twentieth century, grammarians of English had agreed on a set of eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. This list of categories became the orthodox view of English and of other languages, and it was almost universally taught in schools in the English-speaking world, until the teaching of English grammar began to be abandoned in the 1960s.

This set of eight classes is still taught in those schools which teach any English grammar; it is found in many grammar books of English (and even in one or two textbooks of linguistics); and it is the list used by many dictionaries of English in assigning part-of-speech labels. But it is grossly inadequate.

In conclusion, Every sentence in English is made up of basic building blocks, the Part of Speech. Part of  Speech are the smallest grammatical unit : nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, pronouns, conjuctions, interjections. Identify the part of speech of each italicized word. The first one is done as an example : A growing number of people are fluent in several languages. Of as preposition, fluent as adjective and languages as noun.

Part of Speech should be classified more detail

1.      NOUNS

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea.

There are two basic noun groups : those we can count (count nouns) and those we nannot count (noncount nouns).

                                                                           Proper Noun

                                                           Concrete Nouns          Common Noun

                                                                                                Material Noun

                      Menurut wujudnya                                                 Collective Noun

                                                            Abstract Nouns           

                                                                                                                   

                                                                            Countable Nouns

                     Menurut cara menghitungnya                                                             

NOUN                                                                       Uncountable Nouns

Singular Nouns

                     Menurut Jumlahya                              

                                                                         Plural Nouns

Types of  Nouns :

1.      Based on Caracteristic

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are nouns that can be touched, smelled, seen, felt, or tasted. Steak, table, dog, Maria, salt, and wool are all examples of concrete nouns.

Can I pet your dog? Please pass the salt. Your sweater is made of fine wool.

Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our senses.

Such as :

a.       Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific entities. Writers of English capitalize proper nouns like Nebraska, Steve, Harvard, or White House to show their distinction from common nouns.

Example : Billy is a teacher

b.      Common Nouns

Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories of entities. Whereas Nebraska is a proper noun because it signifies a specific state, the word state itself is a common noun because it can refer to any of the 50 states in the United States. Harvard refers to a particular institution of higher learning, while the common noun university can refer to any such institution.

Example : George is a doctor

                  My father goes to the office by car

c.       Material noun

Material nouns are nouns that shows material nouns. In general it is uncountable nouns, just can only touched, measured.

Example :        I drink the water

                        I drink some water

                       

d.      Collective Nouns

In general, collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in a specific manner. Often, collective nouns are used to refer to groups of animals. Consider the following sentences.

Look at the gaggle of geese. There used to be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie. A bevy of swans is swimming in the pond. A colony of ants live in the anthill.

In the above examples, gaggle, herds, bevy, and colony are collective nouns.

Abstract Nouns

More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Concepts like freedom, love, power, and redemption are all examples of abstract nouns.

They hate us for our freedom. All you need is love. We must fight the power.

In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to concepts, ideas, philosophies, and other entities that cannot be concretely perceived.

2.      Based on numerical

a.      Countable Nouns

To linguists, these count nouns can occur in both single and plural forms, can be modified by numerals, and can co-occur with quantificational determiners like many, most, more, several, etc.

For example, the noun bike is countable noun. Consider the following sentence:

There is a bike in that garage.

In this example, the word bike is singular as it refers to one bike that is presently residing in a particular garage.

However, bike can also occur in the plural form.

There are six broken bikes in that garage.

In this example, the noun bikes refers to more than one bike as it is being modified by the numeral six.

In addition, countable nouns can co-occur with quantificational determiners.

In that garage, several bikes are broken.

This sentence is grammatical, as the noun bike can take the modification of the quantificational determiner several.

b. Uncountable Nouns

Conversely, some nouns are not countable and are called uncountable nouns or mass nouns. For example, the word clutter is a mass noun.

That garage is full of clutter.

This sentence makes grammatical sense. However, the following example does not.

That garage is full of clutters.

Uncountable nouns can not take plural forms, and therefore a sentence containing the word clutters is ungrammatical.

Substances, liquids, and powders are entities that are often signified by mass nouns such as wood, sand, water, and flour. Other examples would be milk, air, furniture, freedom, rice, and intelligence.

3.      Based on numerical

Singular nouns

      Singular nouns are nouns to shows if that noun is sigle.

Example :        the dog under chair  eats meat

                        My book is on the table

Plural nouns

      Example :        yesterday I saw a dog at the park

                              Today I saw many dogs at the park

            In the first sentences, I’m using the singular noun (dog). In the second sentence, I’m using the plural noun (dogs). I made the singular noun ’dog’ into a plural noun by adding ‘s’ to the end of  it.

e.       Pronouns

Personal pronouns are types of nouns that take the place of nouns when referring to people, places or things. The personal pronouns in English are I, you, he, she, it, and they.

Amy works at a flowr shop. She works at a flower shop.

The greek invented democracy. They invented democracy

These pronouns take on other forms depending on what type of function they are performing in a sentence. For example, when used to signify possession of another noun, pronouns take on their possessive form such as mine, ours, hers, and theirs.

That pizza belongs to Marley. That pizza is hers.

When used as the object of a preposition, pronouns take on their objective case. Examples include him, her, me, us, and them.

Hand the money over to Jennifer. Hand the money over to her.

The police are on to John and Ray. The police are on to them.

2.      VERBS

a verb is a word which requires one or more noun phrases to serve as its arguments and which forms the head of a verb phrase.

There are several types of Verbs : the action verb, the linking verb, and the helping verb.

                                                                       Forms of the object

                      Transitive Verb                   The double object

                                                                       Transitive verb with conplement

                                                                       Transitive verbs  used intransitively

                                                                  Intransitive verbs of complete prediction

                                                                  Intransitive verb with complement

                                                                                                                Cognate noun yang dibentuk

                                                                                                                 langsung dari kata kerja

                                                                                                    Cognate noun yang serupa/

                                                                                                                 sama artinya

Verb           Intransitive Verb          The Cognate Object            Pelukisan kata benda dari

                                                                                                     cognate noun dimengerti

                                                                                                     Kata sifa yang memberi sifat

                                                                                                     pada cognate noun

                                                                                                                 dimengerti

                                                                                                     Cognate noun yang

                                                                                                                 dinyatakan oleh “it”

                                                                  Prepositional Verb

                       Auxiliary Verb

a.      Transitive Verbs

A transitive verb always ha a noun that receives the action of the verb. This noun is called the direct object.

Example :        - Laurissa raises her hand

(the verb is raises. Her hand is an obkect receiving the verb’s action. Therefore, raises is a transitive verb.)

Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name the object to whom or for whom the action was done.

Example : Jantzen gave Becky the pencil. (The verb is gave. The direct object is the pencil. [What did he give? the pencil]. The indirect object is Becky. [To whom did he give it? to Becky.])

b.      Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb may be followedby an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action.

Example : Laurissa rises slowly from her seat. (The verb is the word, rises. The words, slowly from her seat, modify the verb. But there isno object that receives the action.)

c.       Action Verb

An Action verb tell what action (often a physical action) a subject is a performing, has performed,or will perform.

My father delivers packages to department stores each day.

Louie bowled a perfect game last night.

Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park.

Turn at the next corner, Noel.

Oscar will help Petra with the project.

d.      Linking Verbs

A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in the predicate. The most common linking verbs are the forms of the verb “to be” ( is, are, was, were, been, being, am ) and appear , become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn.

Example :

·         My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb, is, connects the subject, sister, with the predicate nominative, doctor. )

·         My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word is is a helping verb for the main verb, studying. Is does not function as a linking verb.)

·         He appeared tired. (The linking verb, appeared, links the subject, He, with the predicate adjective, tired. )

·         He appeared at the game. (In this sentence the verb, appeared, is an action verb, not a lingking verb.

In the following group of sentences, the odd-numbered sentences exemplify the linking verb and the even-numbered sentences show the same verb used as either an action verb or a helping verb.

e.       Helping Verbs

A helping verb assists the main verb in a sentence. There can be more than one helping verb in each sentence. In a questioning (interrogative) sentence, the helping verb is usually separated from the main verb.

The common helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, has, had, have, do,

does, did, may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would. The italicized word in each sentence below is the helping verb. The underlined word is the main verb.

The members are going to the city tomorrow evening.

Are the members going to the city tomorrow evening?

That joke has been heard around the offi ce.

Has that joke been heard around the offi ce?

Her brothers are leaving for the train.

Are her brothers leaving for the train?

f.       Auxiliary Verbs and Main Verbs

Example :

            Moe is pleased

            Mimi is calling Gordon

In the firs sentence, the verb consists of one word; in the second, the verb is is calling. Auxiliary verb are used to help make the meaning of the main verb clear, usually by indicating differences in time or probability. In the sentences that follow, the main verb is printed in italic and helping verbs are in boldface.

Connecting Verbs and Vocabulary

Thirty verbs are listed alphabetically in the box below. Show your vocabulary knowledge by placing each specifi c verb in its proper space underneath one of the fi ve less specifi c general verbs that follow. Each less specifi c general verb should have six specifi c verbs below it. Use each specifi c verb only once.

Accomplish         achieve              apprehend           chatter              chuckle Claw                    collar                 confess                conquer            corral Giggle                  gossip                guffaw                 howl                 meander Overcome             parade                plod                    pronounce        roar Score                    shuffle                snare                   snicker             soliloquize Stride                    trap                    trek                      triumph            verbalize

One obvious subcategorization is that into transitive verbs, which take an object, and intransitive verbs, which do not. For example, in I saw a film last night, the verb see, appearing here in its inflected form saw, takes the object a film, and it is transitive. But, in She smiled quietly to herself, the verb smile, appearing here as smiled, takes no object, and it is intransitive.

Some English verbs are rigorously intransitive, among them arrive, elapse, deteriorate, triumph, fornicate, dwell, giggle, dive, exist and pontificate. Others are rigorously transitive, including slap, annihilate, underestimate, accompany, trick, seduce, envy, ruin, disdain and evaluate. Very many English verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively, but these verbs appear in a large number of subcategories in which the relation between the transitive and intransitive uses varies conspicuously

3.      ADJECTIVES

·         An adjective is a word that describes a noun

·         An adjective can tell what kind or how many

An adjective can tell what kind or how many.

·         Big ·         Hot ·         Purple ·         Golden ·         Nice ·         Helpful

·         One ·         Five ·         Meny ·         Few ·         Some ·         Several

An adjective qualifies or describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives can also be identified by their inflections and position or function in the sentence.

a.      CHARACTERISTICS

Adjectives have influection to show comparison

1.      Inflections

There are three degrees of comparison. To form the positive degree no inflection is required. To form the comparative degree an -er is added to the end of the adjective. To form the superlative degree an -est is added to the base adjective. The comparative degree is used to show a comparison between one thing and another while the superlative degree is used to show comparison between one thing and several others.

Example :

	Positif	Comparative	Superlative
Words of one syllable	Fair Poor	Fairer Poorer	Fairest Poorest
Words of two syllables (ending in –ly,-er,or -ow)	Friendly Tender Heavy Narrow	Friendlier Tenderer Heavier Narrower	Friendliest Tenderest Heaviest Narrowest
Words of two syllables( not ending in –ly,-er,or -ow)	Brutal Grateful	More brutal More grateful	Most brutal Most grateful
Words of three more syllable	Wonderful Appreciative	More wonderful More appreciative	Most wonderful Most appreciative

2.      To show a lower degree in the comparison the words less and least can be used.

Example:

Curious            less curious      least curious

3.      Some adjectives cannot show degree of comparison because the word denotes an ultimate height. So with these words the qualifying word nearly can be useful.

Example :

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
perfect	more nearly perfect	most nearly perfect
unique	more nearly unique	most nearly unique
universal	more nearly universal	most nearly universal

4.      There are a few adjectives which inflect for degree of comparison irregularly. The most commonly used irregular adjectives are the following:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
many/much	more	most
old	older/elder	oldest/eldest
good	Better	Best
Bad	Worse	Worst
A little	Less	Least

5.      Another characteristic of the adjective is that it can limit or further qualify the meaning of a noun or pronoun by answering the following questions:

What kind?                 blue car, pretty girl

Which one?                 this school, those people

How many?                 ten boys, both teachers

6.      There are some words which may be adjectives or pronouns according to how they are used in the sentence.

His       much   this      your     her       all        my       their     both     some    several these Our      either   neither each     those    few      everyone          that      another                        many

b.      Types Of Adjectives

descriptive adjectives

                           

                                                                  proper adjectives

                           in general                         possessive adjectives          

                                                                Demonstrative adjective                          

                                                                      interrogative adjectives

                                                                                   

  Adjective                                                  Indefinite adjectives

                                                                     Relative adjectives

                                                                                                     Numerical adjectives

                                    Other type of adjectives                         definite article

                                                                                                                                       Indefinite article

Generally adjectives are classified according to their formation, to their relationship with other parts of speech, and, of course, to their function within each sentence.

1.      Descriptive adjectives

Descriptive adjective are adjectives which describe or qualify a noun or pronoun. Most adjectives fall into this classification.

Such as : small, tall, young, mild, bitter, big, clever.

Example :        -     the elephant is big

-          She is a clever student

2.      Proper adjectives

Proper adjective are modifiers formed from proper nouns.

Such as :          French bread

Italian restaurant

Shakespearean drama

An Indonesian

The Indonesian

                        Example : - the Indonesian flag

3.      Posessive adjective

Such as :  my, your, his, her, its, our, their, one's  my books, their pencils

Example :        -     this is my car.

-          Your baby cried loudly last night

-          Their teacher always come on time

4.      Demonstrative adjective

Demonstrative adjective used as adjectives point out “which one”

Such as :   this/these that/those

this book, those pencils

                        Example :        -     these houses are very expensive

-          That man is my father

5.      Interrogative adjective used as adjectives ask questions

Examples: what, which, whose

What assignment is that?

Which book is yours ?

Whose pencil do you have?

6.      Indefinite adjective

Used as adjectives do not give specific number

Examples: another, each, both, many, any, some, no, either, neither

I will go with you another time.

No assignment is due today.

7.      Relative adjective

Used as adjectives also point out which one is relative or subordinate clauses

Examples: which/whichever, what/whatever, whose/whosever

He may take whichever one he wants.

I took what little time I had left.

Whosever books these are must be missing.

c.       The other types of adjectives

1.      Numerical adjective--Specific numbers used to qualify nouns

Examples: two, three, four, etc.

fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, etc.

two bricks, the ninth inning

2.      Definite article (the)

Examples: the books

the teacher

3.      Indefinite article (a/an)

Examples: a book

an apple

d.      The function or position of adjectives

Most adjectives should be near the nouns or pronouns that they modify.

The most common positions are as follows:

1. Before the noun being modified or before the indefinite pronoun one

Examples: The industrious student visited the Writing Center often.

That student is the only one to miss five days in a row.

2. As a predicate adjective or subject complement following a linking verb

Examples: The teacher seems knowledgeable.

The room smells musty.

3. As an object complement after the direct object in the sentence

Examples: I want that essay perfect.

The assignment is driving me crazy.

4. As a modifier of an indefinite pronoun following the pronoun

Examples: Something small and shiny would be nice.

None sweeter could be tasted.

4.      ADVERBS

Adverb that modify verbs

An Adverb modifies a verb, a verb phrase or a sentence. Adverb are words like slowly, tomorrow, now, soon and suddenly.

Adverbs are subcategorized into two main types: simple adverbs and sentence adverbs.

A simple adverb modifies a verb or a verb phrase. Some simple adverbs pertain to time, such as yesterday, soon, often, never, then and always.

Some pertain to place, such as here and somewhere. Some pertain to circumstance, such as unwittingly, unnecessarily and publicly. Some pertain to direction, such as out, away, off, down and uphill. Many pertain to manner, such as carefully, reluctantly, hastily, angrily and provocatively.

A sentence adverb modifies a whole sentence. Semantically, a sentence adverb expresses the attitude of the speaker toward what is being said. Typical sentence adverbs are probably, frankly, hopefully, certainly, surely, surprisingly, undoubtedly and maybe.

Example :

-          She should speak frankly to her boss

(Here frankly is a simple adverb: it modifies the verb speak, and it describes the manner of her speaking.)

-          Frankly, sho should speak to her boss

(Here frankly is a sentence adverb: it modifies the entire sentence, and it expresses the speaker’s attitude toward that sentence.)

It provides information about the manner, place or circumstances of the activity denoted by the verb or verb phrase.

Example :

-          She walked slowly. (Here the adverb slowly shows the manner in which she walked).

-          The kids are playing upstairs. (Here the adverb upstairs provides information about the place of the activity)

Adverb can also modify adjectives and other adverb.

Example :

-          You are quite right. (here the adverb quite modifies the adjectives right ).

-          She spoken quite loudly. (here the adverb quite modifies another adverb - loudly)

Adverbs in intensify meaning

Adverbs that modify adjectives and other adverbs are called intensifier. They strengthen or weaken the force of a word or help in drawing comparisons. See how the adjective strong and the adverb strongly-at first used with no intensifiers can be strengthened, then softened, then used in comparison with intensifiers.

Example :

-          A strong wind below                                The wind blew strongly

-          A very strong wind below                                    The wind blew very strongly

-          A rather strong wind below                     The wind blew rather srongly.

-          Many people stood patiently in the hot sun

Many : adjective

Patiently : adverb

Hot : adjective

KINDS OF ADVERBS

                                                                  Adverbs of manner

                                                                  Adverbs of time

        Adverbs

                                                            Adverbs of place

                                                              

                                                               Adverbs of frequency

1.      Adverb Of Manner

Adverb of manner express how an action is or was done. They usually placed after the direct object (if there is one), otherwise after the verb.

Example :

-          He speaks English well. They walked quickly

-          She painted the picture here. I look everywhere.

2.      Adverb Of Time

Adverbs of Time express when an action is or was done.

These adverbs are normally placed at the end of a clause or sentence. 

Example :        The boys said, “I will do the work tomorrow”.

The father said, “ You will do it now”.

 In long sentences, however, adverbs of time are placed at the beginning of the sentence.  At three in the morning I heard a loud knock on the front door.

If we want to emphasize when, how or where an action is done, the adverb can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Example :        Tomorrow we will go to London.

Suddenly he felt a hand on his shoulder.

If there are several adverbs in a sentence the usual order in which they follow the verb is:

Manner(how?), place (where?), time (when?)

Example :

She worked

Very hard

At school

Last week

           

           

                                                M                     P                      T                     

                                                                                               

3.      Adverb of Place

Adverbs of Place express where an action is or was done.

Example :

He will wait here. Perhaps they are at school. Mary’s uncle is in hospital.

4.      Adverb of Frequency

Adverb of frequency express how often an action is or was done.

They are placed after the simples tenses of to be: 

He is always in time for meals

They are placed before the simple tenses of all other verbs:

Tom often goes to work by car.

With tenses consisting of more than one verb, they are placed after the first one:

Your car has probably been stolen. 

Adverbs and Adjectives with the same form
I’m afraid he is not well	He can sing well.
She is a pretty girl.	That is a pretty good picture.
I saw a dead bird in the garden.	He was dead drunk.
That is a very fast train.	It goes very fast.
My shoes are too tight.	Hold tight.
He is a hard worker.	He works hard.
He has gone to the Far East.	We didn’t walk very far.

Adverbs with two forms and Different Meanings
The boy climbed high up the tree.	She is highly interested in history.
We had to work hard.	They could hardly find their way.
He came late.	I haven’t seen him lately.
He studied deep into the night.	He is deeply grateful for our support..
The team played fair.	He did fairly well in his examination.

Double Comparatives and Superlatives
Far	Farther Further	arthest(distance only) furthest (distance and time)	I’m tired. I can’t walk much farther. Have you heard any further news? (= any more)
Near	Nearer	Nearest (distance) Next (order)	The next turning to the right is not the nearest way to the station.
Late	Later Latter	latest  (time) last  (order)	His latest book will not be his last. Which books do you like better, love or detective books? I prefer the former to the latter.
Older	Older Elder	oldest eldest	Tom looks older than he really is. My eldest brother is a pilot. (used attributively  and only with members of the family)

5.      PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a grammatical word which can form a noun phrase all by itself. Any word which is not a noun but which can fit into the following frame is a pronoun (though not all pronouns can fill this slot):was/were nice.

Pronouns are divided into a number of subclasses which differ grammatically in various respects.

Common types of pronouns found in the world’s languages are as follow:

a.      Personal Pronouns

As : I/me, you, he/him, she/her, it, we/us and they/them, and also the indefinite one, as in One hardly knows what to do. (We used to have one more, thou, but this is now obsolete.)

Personal pronouns refer to people and things. They are divided into three categories called first person (referring to the person who is speaking: I went to the mall), second person (referring to the person spoken to: Joey, can you see the bus?), and third person (referring to anyone or anything else: Bob saw us do this assignment). The pronouns in the two example sentences above are personal pronouns.

The following list shows these three categories of personal pronouns:

	Singular	Plural
First person (the person speaking)	I, my, mine, me	We, our, ours, us
Second person (the person spoken to)	You, your, yours	You, your, yours
Third person (some other person or thing)	He, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its	They, their, theirs, them

Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people of things:

v  Subjective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. English example: I like to eat chips, but she does not.

·         Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). For example, vous and tu in French. There is no distinction in modern English though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with "thou" (singular informal) and "you" (plural or singular formal).

·         Inclusive and exclusive “we” pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There is no distinction in English

·         Intensive pronouns, also known an emphatic pronouns, re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as for the reflexsive pronouns, for example : I did it myself(contrast reflexsive use, I did it to myself).

v  Objective Pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause.

Example : John like me but do not her

·         Direct and indirect object pronouns. English uses the same forms for both.

For example : Mary loves him (direct object), Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).

·         Reflexive Pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself.

Example : John cut himself

·         Reciprocal Pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship.

Example : they do not like each other.

v  Preposition pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English

Example : Anti and Anni looked at him.

v  Disjunctive Pronouns are used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English.

Example : Who does this belong to?

v  Dummy pronouns are used when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required.

Example: It is raining.

v  Weak Pronouns

b.      Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership.

v  In a strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. English example: Those clothes are mine.

v  Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English: I lost my wallet. They are not strictly speaking pronouns^[because they do not substitute for a noun or noun phrase, and as such, some grammarians classify these terms in a separate lexical category called determiners (they have a syntactic role close to that of adjectives, always qualifying a noun).

c.       Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates.

Example: I'll take these.

d.      Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. English example: Anyone can do that.

v  Distributive Pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than collectively. English example: To each his own.

v  Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. English example: Nobody thinks that.

e.       Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. English example: People who smoke should quit now.

v  Indefinite relative pronouns have some of the properties of both relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. They have a sense of "referring back", but the person or thing to which they refer has not previously been explicitly named. English example: I know what I like.

f.       Interrogative Pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. English example: Who did that?

v  In many languages (e.g., Czech, English, French, Interlingua, and Russian), the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is that? (interrogative) to I know who that is. (relative).

6.      PREPOSITIONS

Preposition are a grammatically distinct class of words whose most central members characteristically express spatial relations (such as in, under, toward) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles.

Preposition is a word used to show the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. That noun or pronoun, which always comes after the preposition, is called the object of the preposition

                                                                                                  Kata Keterangan sebagai objek

                                  Dipakai sebagai objek                             Ungkapan sebagai objek

                                                                                              Anak kalimat kata benda

                                                                                             ( Noun clause ) sebagai objek

                                  Bentuk Preposisi                              Simple Preposition                                                      

                                                                             

       P                                                                                                         Double Preposition

       R                                                                                                        Compound Preposition

       E                                                                                                          Participal Preposition

       P                                                                                                          Phrase Preposition

       O                                                                                                         Disquised Preposition

S                                                                                                          At, in (Place=tempat)

I                                                                                                           At, in, on (time=waktu)

T                                                                                                         A, for (price=harga)

I                                                                                                          Beside, besides

O                                                                                                        Between, among

N                        Pemakaian Preposisi                                               By, with

                                                                                  By, before, since

                                                                                  In, after

                                                                                   To, at

7.      CONJUNCTIONS

 

                                                                   Coordinating conjunctions

                                             Correlative conjunctions

Conjunctions

subordinating conjunctions

                                               conjunctions adverb

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two word, sentences, phrases or clauses together. In general, a conjunction in an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.

The definition can also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function as a single-word conjunction. Example : as well as, provided that, etc. The purpose of conjunctions is to join words or word groups in a tenses.

There are several types of conjunctions:

a.      Coordinating conjunctions

This type of conjunction links words, phrases or clauses. The units being joined by a coordinating conjunction must be parallel in grammatical structure and importance.

The following coordinating conjunctions are used after a comma to join one independent clause to another: and, but, or, for, nor, so, and yet.

Example :

-          Ranti and Rani are friends. (joins two nouns)

-          The river flows into the swamp but not out of it. (joins two preposition phrase)

-          We left the fair, for we were worn out. (joins two clauses)

-          The road is muddy yet passable. (joins two adjevtives)

b.      Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunction that work together to coordinate two items.

These consist of two parts, both of which must be included in the sentence. Some common correlative conjunctions are both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but (also), and whether…or.

           

both . . . and not only . . . but also not . . . but either . . . or

neither . . . nor whether . . . or as . . . as

Example :

-          Either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.

-          Not only is he handsome but he is also brilliant.

-          Neither Juliane nor Surti completed nursing school.

-          Both the cross country team and the swimming team are doing well.

-          Whether you stay or go is your decision.

c.       Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinate conjunctions are used to link subordinate clauses with the main clauses that they refer to.

When a clause has less emphasis or is less important in a sentence, it is subordinate to or dependent upon the other clause. The relationship between a subordinate or dependent clause to the main clause is shown by a marker word that begins th subordinate clause.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after although as as if as long as as though because before even if even though	if if only in order that now that once rather than since so that than that	though till unless until when whenever where whereas wherever while

Following are some common subordinating conjunctions:

§  After, although, as, as though, because, before, if, once, since, as if, as long as, in order that,  though, unless, until when, whether, while, as soon as, unless, etc.

§  Even though she explained all of her results in detail, she did not get full credit for her work.

Example :

-          The nurse came as soon as the patient cried out

-          No one should use that bridge unless it is reinforced.

d.      Conjunctive Adverbs

Adverbs that function as conjunctions when they link two independent clauses separated by a semicolon are called conjunctive adverbs.

Some common conjunctive adverbs are consequently, otherwise, however, thus, furthermore, therefore, moreover, at last, besides, finally, still, then, nevertheless, later, next and nevertheless.

Example :

-          The neighbor’s dog howled all night, consequently, I didn’t get much sleep. (indicates a cause-effect relationship)

-          The dives had found no treasure in ten week; nevertheless, they continued the search. (indicates a contrast).

8.      INTERJECTIONS

Interjections are words used to express emotions like joy, pain, shock, excitement, approval, or displeasure. They are usually separated from the statement to which they apply either by a comma (for a mild interjection) or an exclamation mark.

Here is a list of a few common interjections:

Help!               You’re kidding!          Indeed! Ouch!              Ssh!                             Oh! Hah!                OK                              Hurray! Um                  Whoops!                      Never! Well                 Ah                               No Way!

Example :

-          Well, nobody told you to hit it that hard.

-          OK, what do you suggest?

-          Oh, Ani, I don’t Know.

-          Ssh, don’t forget you’re in the library.